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Racial Segregation
Segregation in the US
Black Codes? Jim Crow laws? Redlining? Racial steering? Blockbusting? White flight? Black flight? Gentrification? Sundown towns? Proposition 14? Indian Appropriations? Indian Reservation
Antisemitism
May Laws? Japanese American internment? Italian American internment? Immigration Act of 1924? Separate but equal? Ghettos
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Historically the United States of America has been defined by racially segregated neighborhoods. Urban Planning up to the 1960s has been documented as one of the causes of this phenomenon. Urban planners have been seen to have practiced early forms of racial steering. Through the use of the restrictive covenant, and the establishment of zoning laws between World War I and World War II , and the use of urban renewal between the 1940s and 1960s, urban planners have aided in the development of racially segregated neighborhoods. After the 1960s, through in part by the Civil Rights Movement , planning efforts were focused more towards advocacy, and community development, rather than maintaining segregation. Although planning practices did change, the racial make-up of neighborhoods did not.
Examples of racial steering
An example of an urban planner practicing racial steering when developing communities is Ebenezer Howard. In 1898 after observing congestion and pollution problems in London, Howard developed a community model, which he would call "garden cities" that would lessen the impact of congestion and pollution. Howard hoped that the communities "would offer economy and social advances of the city combined with the tranquility, healthful environment, and closeness to nature" of the suburb life. These communities would be set up for Caucasian upper middle class people, and "by virtue of quick rail access, they would have close economic links to other cities, but would have enough economic activity within its boundaries so that the majority of residents would not have to commute" thus lessening the impact of congestion and pollution. "Howard work has influenced urban development in dozens if not hundreds of communities" in the United States.
An example of racial steering occurring in the United States can be seen in Detroit, Michigan. When the automobile industry opened up new factories creating many jobs in 1916 - 1917 and again in 1924, many African Americans migrated to reap the benefits. This migration changed the racial, social, economic, and political landscape of Detroit. City officials were faced with racial tensions almost overnight. Racial tensions were maintained by the city officials when they supported movements and laws that allowed racial segregation and discrimination in housing, employment and community services to continue.
History
Theoretical explanations
Researchers have attempted to explain the racial segregation seen in neighborhoods throughout the United States. There are three leading theories. The first "asserts that the phenomenon is really self segregation, the result of the preferences of blacks, as with other ethnics, to live in segregated neighborhoods. The second suggests atlanta braves blue alternate jersey that poverty, aided by the inertia of history has perpetuated segregation. The third suggests that the decline of blatant discrimination of the past has revealed pervasive institutional racism." John E. Farley, argues that although it is plausible for each of these theories to contribute to the segregation seen, his research lends the most support to the second theory, which bases itself on social class. Farley states that "class largely determines what housing people can afford to rent
Federal laws
The United States congress passed a series of Acts aimed at combating segregation. The first such act, The Civil Rights Act of 1866, states in subsections 1981, 1981a, and 1982 that all persons born in the United States are citizens regardless of their race, color, or previous condition and as citizens they could make and enforce contracts, sue and be sued, give evidence in court, and inherit, purchase, lease, sell, hold, and convey real estate and personal property. Although this act was passed, it was never enforced on the local, state or national level. A second act, The Civil Rights Act of 1964, through Title VI outlawed segregation in atlanta braves blue alternate jersey public schools and public places. It also made it illegal to have segregation of the races in schools, housing, or hiring. Like the first act, powers given to enforce it were weak in the beginning, but were later supplemented. A third act, the Civil Rights Act of 1968, subsection 3604, expanded on the Civil Rights Act of 1866. It prohibited discrimination concerning the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, national origin, and sex. This section is also referred to as the Fair Housing Act. This act is enforced on the local, state, and national level with the aid of the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development.
Movement organizations
Throughout the past four decades since the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1968, many people have come together to movement organizations that fight racial discrimination in the housing market. One such organization is the National Fair Housing Alliance. It credits itself "as being the only national organization that is dedicated solely to ending discrimination in housing" In the greater Metropolitan Area, there are seven local member organizations they are the Fair Housing Council of Central New York, Fair Housing Enforcement Project, Long Island Housing Services, Housing Opportunities Made Equal, Westchester Residential Opportunities, Fair Housing Council of Northern New Jersey, and the Connecticut Fair Housing Center. A second organization is the Fair Housing Law. They are leading a campaign to "increase public awareness of the Fair Housing Act, and its protections" A third organization, The National Fair Housing Advocate, aims itself as being "designed to serve both the fair housing community and the general public with timely news and information regarding the issues of housing discrimination" Each of these organizations share a common theme, bringing up class action lawsuits against people and/ or companies who fail to rent or sell to others based on their race.
Lawsuits
Since the enacting of federal laws and the emergence of movement organizations, there have been several lawsuits brought up against individuals and companies for racial discrimination.
Realty Forum vs. New York State Attorney General (1988): This case involves the New York State Attorney General suing a Yonkers Real Estate agency, The Realty Forum in 1988 with racial steering. The Attorney General accused the firm of "providing listings of apartments in particular neighborhoods based solely on a client race or color". The Attorney General began investigating the Realty Forum after receiving complaints from the Westchester Residential Opportunities. The realty Forum has since been found guilty.
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